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¦b¨U¤ì´µ·|ij«á¡A¼w¬Ó¬d²z¤¥@¹{¥¬¿Ù¥O¡A±N°¨¤B¸ô¼w§P©w¬°²§ºÝ¡A¨Ã¨ú½l¥Lªº¤@¤ÁµÛ§@¡CµM¦Ó¡A¦]µÛ¥~¾ÔÀW¤´¡A¦¹¿Ù¥O¤@ª½¨S¦³¹ý©³°õ¦æ¡C¼w°ê«n±ªº¤ý¤l̮ĩ¾©óù°¨¤Ñ¥D±Ð©M¼w¬Ó¡A¥_±ªº¤ý¤lÌ«o¤ä«ù¸ô¼w¡C¦b§ï±Ð¤H¤h»P¤ý«Jªº¤O«P¤U¡A²Ä¤@¦¸¬I¬£º¸·|ij©ó1526¦~¥l¶}¡C·|ij¤¤¨M©w¡A¦b¥¿¦¡ªº¤j¤½·|ij¥l¶}¥H«e¡A¤ý«JÌ¥i¥H¦Û¦æ¨M©w«H¥õ¤è¦¡¡A¨Ã¥H«H¥Î¦V¯«©M¬Ó«Òt³d¡A¼È®Éáµ²¤F³B¤À¸ô¼wªº¨U¤ì´µ¿Ù¥O¡C1529¦~¡A¬I¬£º¸·|ij¤G«×¥l¶}¡A¦b¼w¬Óªº¤ä«ù¤U¡A¤ä«ù¤Ñ¥D±Ðªº¤ý«JÌ°í¨M³e¹ý¨U¤ì´µ¿Ù¥O¡A¨ÃÀÀ±N§ï²¬£ªº°Ï°ì¤Ñ¥D±Ð¤Æ¡C¸ô¼w¬£¤H¤h¹ï¦¹´£¥XÄY¥¿§Üij¡A§Üij©v¡]Protestant¡^¤@µü§Y¬O¥Ñ¦¹¦Ó¨Ó¡C
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2. ¦P®É´Áªº¨ä¥L§ï²ªÌ
²Ä¤G¦¸¬I¬£º¸·|ijµ²§ô«á¡A¶Â´Ë¿Ë¤ýµÌ¤O¬°¤F¾ã¦X¼w°ê»P·ç¤hªº§ï±Ð¶Õ¤O¡AÁܽиô¼w¡B·O¹B²z¤Î¨ä¥L¦h¦ì§ï²ªÌ¦P¨ì°¨º¸³ù¨ó°Ó¡CµM¦Ó¦]µÛ¸tÀ\±Ð¸qÆ[ÂI¤§¤Àª[¡A¦Ü²×µLªk¹F¦¨µÌ¤Oªº¦X¤@¥Ø¼Ð¡C·í®É¥X®uªºÁÙ¦³Äõ§B¯S¡]Francois
Lambert¡^¡CÄõ§B¯S¬O¶Â´Ë¿Ë¤ýªº¦n¤Í¡A¦bªk°ê¡B¼w°ê¡B·ç¤h¤@±a¶i¦æ§ï²¡C¥L´¿¸g¯óÀÀ¤F¤@¥÷±Ð·|§ï²ªºÂŹϡA¥D±i±Ð·|À³¥Ñ·|²³¦Ûªv¡AÁקK¬Fªv¶Õ¤Oªº¤¶¤J¡CµM¦Ó¡A³o¥÷p¹º«o¦]¸ô¼wªº¤¶¤J¦Ó§i§j¡C¸ô¼w»{¬°¡A·í®Éªº§ï²¬£¥¿¦b»P¤Ñ¥D±Ð¹ï«Ï¡A«æ¤Á»Ýn¶Q±Úªº¤ä«ù¡A½Í¥Á·N¨¥¤§¹L¦¡C¬°¤FÅ¢µ¸¶Q±Ú¶Õ¤O¡A¸ô¼w¶É¦V¥Ñ¬FÅv¨Ó¨M©w±Ð·|ªº¸t¾¡B¸t§¨Æ©y¡C
¦P®É´Á¥t¦³¤@¦ì§ï²ªÌ¡A¬J¤£¦P¬y©óù°¨¤Ñ¥D±Ð¡A¤S¤£ªþ±q¸ô¼w¬£©Î«®û¬£¡A¥L¬O¦è¨½¦è¨È¡]Silesia¡^ªº¶Q±Ú¡A¦W¥s¤h¤å§J´´¯S¡]Schwenckfeld¡^¡C¤h¤å§J´´¯S¼ö·R¬ãŪ¸t¸g¡A¥L»{¬°¡u¾ã¥»¸t¸gªºÁ`©M¡A´N¬O°ò·þ¡v¡A¨Ã«Øij¦b¹J¨ìºÃÃøªº¸g¤å®É¡An¡u¥H³s¦P¤W¤U¤å¤@°_¬ã¨s¡A¥H¸g¸Ñ¸g¡v¡C¦b±Ð·|¤è±¡A¥L¥D±i¥H·s¬ùªì´Áªº¥l·|¬°¼Ò«¬¡C±Ð·|À³¬O¦b¦U¦a¥X²{¡A¥H°ò·þ¬°¤¸º¡AÅý¸tÆF´xÅv¡A¬¡¥X°ò·þ¨Å骺¹ê»Ú¡C¦]µÛ¤h¤å§J´´¯S¦b¥DÀ\ªº±Ð¸q¤W»P¸ô¼wÆ[ÂI¤Àª[¡A¥[¤W¨ä®Ú¾Ú¸t¸g©Ò«Ø¥ßªº±Ð·|¤é¯q¿³©ô¡A¤Þ°_¤F¸ô¼w¬£ªº©áÀ»»P¢®`¡A¨Ï¥L¥|³B¬y®ö¤T¤Q¦~¤§¤[¡C
3. ¹A¥Á²©R
¤¤¥j¥@¬öªº¹A¥Á¡A¦]ªø´Á¹¡¨ü¶Q±Ú»P±Ð·|ªºé«d¡A¸g±`§Üij»P¤Ï«q¡C¦]µÛ¸ô¼wªº¯«¾Ç±j½Õ«H¤ß»P¦Û¥Ñ¡A¹E³Q¹A¥Áɧ@ªÀ·|¹B°Êªº°ò¦¡C1525¦~¡A¹A¥Á¥Xª©¤F¡m¤Q¤G±ø´Ú¡n¡]Twelve
Articles¡^¡A¥H¡u«H®{¬Ò¬°²½¥q¡v¬°¥Ñ¡An¨D§K°£³Ò§Ð¡A¨Ã¥B¬~§T×°|¡A¥R¤½°]ª«¡Cªì´Á¡A¸ô¼w¹ï³o¨Ç¹A¥Áªí¥Ü¦P±¡¡A¼g¤U¤F¡m½×¦Û¥Ñ¡n¡]Ermahnung
zum Frieden¡^¡A³d³Æ¤£¦X²zªº»â¥D¡A¨ÃÄU»|¹A¥Á´L«¬F©²¡CµM¦Ó¡A¹A¥ÁÌ«oÃzµo¤F§óÄY«ªº¼É¶Ã¡C¿E¶iªº§ï²ªÌ¶{¦¸º¸¦b¼Ò¦Ò´µ¡]Munlhausen¡^©^¯«ªº¦W±O±þÂíÀ£ªÌ¡C¸ô¼w¬Æ·P¾_Åå¡A¥ß§Y¼g¤U¤F¡m¤Ï¹ï¹A¥Áªº·m±°»P±O±þ¡n¡Aªí¥Ü¹A¥Á·m¹Ü¡B±þ¤H¡B¨Ã°²ÉºÖµ¤§¦W¦æ¨Æ¡AÀ³·í³Q³B¦º¡A¶Q±ÚÀ³¥H¤@¤Á¤â¬q¨î¤î¼É¶Ã¡C¦b¸ô¼w¬£¡B¤Ñ¥D±Ð¶Q±ÚªºÁp¤â¤U¡A¤Q¸U¹A¥Á³Q±þ¡C¸ô¼wÁöµMµh¤ß¶Q±Úªº¤¿´Ý¡A¦ý¤´¤ä«ù¬F©²ªºÅv«Â¡A¸ô¼w»P¹A¥Á±q¦¹¬Û¤¬¥¢¥h¤F«H¤ß¡C
4. ¤Ñ¥D±Ð¤º³¡ªº§ï²
¦¦b¸ô¼w»Pù°¨¤Ñ¥D±Ð¤Àµõ¤§«e¡A¤Ñ¥D±Ð¤º³¡«K¥X²{¤F³\¦h®¶¿³ªºÁnµ¡C¤Q¤»¥@¬öªì¡A³\¦h×·|»P±j½Õ¤¬§U¡Bµ½¦æªº²Õ´¯É¯É¦¨¥ß¡A¨µ°jªº×¤h¦b«°¶mùرÀ°Ê¾Ä¿³¡A¥L̵L·N§å§P±Ð¸q¡A¥u¬ß±æ¦b¥Í©R¤è±±a¨Ó´_¿³¡C
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of Jesus¡^¡C¦¹·|ªº³Ð¿ì¤H¨Ì®æ¯ÇÀï¡]Ignatius Loyola¡^쬰¦è¯Z¤úªºx¤H¡A«á¥ß»}¦¨¬°C¿qºë§L¡AÄY¦u¬ö«ß¡A¶¶±q°ò·þ¡CC¿q·|¦³¤T¶µ¥Dn¥ô°È¡G¹ï§Ü·s±Ð¡B´£¨Ñ°ª«~½èªº±Ð¨|¡B±À°Ê«Å±Ð¤u§@¡C¹ï©óC¿q·|±Ð¤h¦Ó¨¥¡A¯«¦b¦a¤Wªº°ê«×¶°¤¤©óù°¨±Ð·|¡A¥H±Ð¬Ó¬°¨ä¥Nªí¡A©Ò¦³Â÷¶}±Ð§Êªº²Õ´©Î±Ð¸q³£¬O²§ºÝ¡C¥L̦b¸q¤j§Q¡B¦è¯Z¤ú¡B¸²µå¤ú¨³³tÂX®i¡A¨Ã¦b©v±Ðµô§P©Òªº¤ä«ù¤U¡A¥|³B§ðÀ»·s±Ð®{¡C¥L̤]±N¤Ñ¥D±Ð¶Ç¼½¨ì¬ü¬w¡B«D¬w¡B¨È¬wµ¥¦a¡A©ú´Â¨ÓµØªº§Qº¿Äu¡B´öY±æµ¥¤H¡A§Y¬°C¿qªº·|¤h¡C
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of Trent¡^¡C¦¹¦¸·|ijªø¹F¤Q¤K¦~¡A¬°¤Ñ¥D±Ð¾ú¥v¤Wªº«nÂà©Ñ¡A¦]¬°¥¦¼vÅT¤F©¹«á¥|¦Ê¦~¤Ñ¥D±Ðªº²Õ´»P±Ð¸q¡C·|ij¤¤¸Ô²Ó°Q½×¨º¨Ç¤Þ°_ª§½×ªº±Ð¸q¡A¨Ã©Úµ´¤@¤Á´_쬣Æ[ÂI¡C¤£¶È«¥Ó¶Ç²Î»P±Ð¬ÓªºÅv«Â¡A¤Ï¹ï¸tÀ\¡uÅܽè½×¡v¥H¥~ªº¤@¤Á¥ß³õ¡A±j½Õ¸t§ªº¥\®Ä¡A¨Ã¥[ªÖ©w·Òº»»Pµ½¥\ªºÆ[©À¡C·|ij¨Ã¨M©w¥H¸t¸gªZ¥[¤jĶ¥»¡A§@¬°¤Ñ¥D±Ðªº¼Ð·ÇĶ¥»¡A¨Ã«Å§Gù°¨¤Ñ¥D±Ð·|¬O¸t¸gªº¸àĶªÌ¡C¤Ñ¯S·|ij¤£¶È½T©w¤F¤Ñ¥D±Ðªº±Ð¸q¡A¤]°w¹ï¯«Â¾¤Hûªº¬ö«ß¶i¦æ§ï²¡A³\¦h±Ð§Ê¹ú¬F¤@±½¦ÓªÅ¡A¬°¤¤¥j¥@¬öªºÃ¹°¨¤Ñ¥D±Ð±a¨Ó¤@µf®¶¿³ªº®ð¶H¡C
5. ¸ô¼w©v¬£ªº§Î¦¨
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¡]¥»¤åºK¦Ûhttp://www.rpc.ox.ac.uk/sfld/cslife.htm¡^
Spiritual Beginnings
Sometime in 1518, or perhaps 1519, Caspar
Schwenckfeld experienced what he refers to as a "visitation of the
divine" ¡]in German, Heimsuchung Gottes, literally
"home-seeking of God"¡^. He admits that he was not
particularly religious during his early years as a court advisor, but
his pattern of behavior changed after 1518.
The visitation to which he refers was not the only change in his life at
the time. He was directly affected by his reading of Luther's writings,
and he undertook a serious study of the Scriptures at this point in his
life as well. Shortly before September 1519, his father died and not
long after that Schwenckfeld began to lose his hearing, an event which
forced him to return to his family estate at Ossig ¡]now run by brother
Hans¡^ and to serve Duke Friedrich as only an occasional advisor,
although he did remain highly influential at the court.
By 1521 he was seriously supporting the
cause of reform, and had won his Duke to his programme by 1522. But from
the very beginning Schwenckfeld's position seems to have differed from
Luther's, and by 1524 the differences were abundantly clear. In June of
that year he published an Admonition to the Silesian preachers in which
he attempted to rectify problems he saw arising from Luther's theology.
He was concerned above all that five
principles at the center of Luther's position were misleading the simple
people of the day. These were ¡]1¡^ that faith alone justifies, ¡]2¡^
that an individual does not have free well, ¡]3¡^ that we cannot keep
God's commandments, ¡]4¡^ that our works are of no avail, and ¡]5¡^
that Christ has made satisfaction for us.
The Nature of Faith
Ever concerned with the practical results
of theology, Schwenckfeld did not reject these principles out of hand in
his Admonition. Indeed, he had been initially drawn by their very
"practicality" for the reform he supported. But by 1524, he
had come to believe that if pressed too far, these keystones of
reformation could prove ultimately destructive of their very intent.
To grasp the issue, it might be best for a
moment to stand back from the specifics of Schwenckfeld's argument and
look at the debate over the first principle, "that faith alone
justifies," in its full context.
The traditional theology that Schwenckfeld
had inherited had always taught that an individual is justified by grace
through faith -- that was a Catholic as well as a Protestant position.
The problem arose in regard to the nature of the faith by which one is
justified. Catholics in Schwenckfeld's day ¡]and ours¡^ teach that
justifying faith must be understood in the context of Galatians 5:6
"For in Christ Jesus neither circumcision nor uncircumcision is of
any avail, but faith working through love."
It was this last phrase, "working
through love," which had led to the problems Luther pointed to.
When simplistically interpreted by some
theologians, this phrase had come to mean for many that the faith which
availed was dependent on the acts of love through which it worked. Worse
yet, in the hands of ecclesiastical bureaucrats "works of
love" came to be understood as the fulfillment of institutionalised
religious regulations.
In this setting, one can understand both
Luther's and Schwenckfeld's sense of release when they rad Ephesians
2:8: "For by grace you have been saved through faith." Here
"Faith" stood alone; the words "working through
love" were missing, and the remainder of the verse emphasized the
fact: "this is not of your own doing, it is the gift of God -- not
because of works." Faith availed in itself for salvation and
required no "working through love," certainly not in the sense
of keeping the particular rules set down in a code of church law, or by
reciting formulaic prayers.
Unlike Luther, Schwenckfeld did not proceed
to limit his theology by this insight ¡]Luther's so-called "canon
within the Canon"¡^. He was always more concerned with the results
of a theological system on the life of individuals and the society in
which they lived. He often spoke of his work as a "middle way"
between what had become in the early sixteenth century two warring
positions. Thus he would continue to uphold the need for Christian works
of love while supporting what he considered the central insight of the
Wittenberg movement. The results were to be expected: He was viewed by
both sides as supporting their opponents.
The Sacramental Center of Faith
Surprisingly enough, it was not over the
issues noted in the 1524 Admonition that the real debate between
Schwenckfeld and Luther erupted. To find a middle way between two
opponents, as was the case in the so-called "faith-works"
issue is one thing; it is quite another when a topic arises in which
there are three conflicting opinions. This was the case regarding the
Lord's Supper.
By the middle of the 1520s this debate was
already in full flower. Catholics maintained that when the priest
elevated the bread at the altar and pronounced the words of
consecration, the bread became the body of Christ ¡]this position is
called transubstantiation¡^. The Swiss, under the leadership of Uldrich
Zwingli, on the other hand, rejected such a position altogether and
insisted that the bread merely represented the body of Christ.
In a sense, in this disagreement, Luther's
position was the middle way. Those who followed him taught that more
than simple representation occurred in the sacrament, but they rejected
any interpretation which might lead one to think in terms of magical
transformation. The body of Christ they taught, was "in, with, and
under" the bread ¡]called consubstantiation¡^.
For Schwenckfeld all three explanations
were unsatisfactory. Once again, what troubled him more than the
divisive theologies of the Sacrament were practical results. Those who
eat and drink of the body and blood of Christ unworthily, he believed
with St. Paul, are "guilty of profaning" the body and blood
¡]1 Cor. 11:27¡^. What constituted unworthy participation more than
doing so while anathematizing one's fellow Christians All three groups
celebrated this central rite of Christian faith and unity while in open
warfare with other Christians.
The situation was an open offence to the
Faith, and Schwenckfeld was early concerned with it. He and his learned
friend, Valentine Crautwald, had discussed the issue at length and the
latter was greatly troubled over it.
Crautwald returned home after attending
early communion on 16 September 1525 to consider the matter. After a
full day of reflection he fell asleep for a short time and awoke before
dawn on September 17. Suddenly all the passages of Scripture relating to
the problem were before him, and a "sweet voice" opened them
to him.
The vision he experienced and the ten days
following it which were spent in detailed examination of its
implications, he described in a letter to Schwenckfeld. Schwenckfeld in
turn developed the results of the vision along with Crautwald.
The disputed words of institution should be
read as follows: "My body is this, namely, food." "It was
not until the disciples had eaten the bread and drunk the wine that
Christ spoke the words. Bread is not a food until the grain has been
grown, threshed, ground, baked and eaten; bread when eaten nourishes and
strengthens the body." The word "is" in the words of
institution means "is," not "represents," but one
must distinguish between the physical and the spiritual. "Give the
physical to the body, the spiritual to the poor soul which is spiritual;
let physical bread nourish the physical body, the invisible [bread], the
invisible soul."
By faith, then, one truly does eat the
spiritual body of Christ, and in time Schwenckfeld and Crautwald would
work out the implications of their theology, teaching that the spiritual
grain thus eaten by faith grows in the believer, transforming him or her
toward the full image of God, the person of Christ.
On 30 November 1525 ¡]two months after
Crautwald's vision¡^, Schwenckfeld traveled to Wittenberg to present
their finds to Luther. He was rebuffed by the great reformer, and from
then on their paths would clearly separate.
The Suspension ¡]"Stillstand"¡^
Of the Sacrament
In spite of Luther's rebuff, Schwenckfeld
seems to have remained hopeful that his "middle way" might yet
become a reality. He returned to Liegnitz and there with the aid of his
duke and the brotherhood that had formed around him, worked avidly for
the reform of the church in his area. He supported the foundation of a
university in Liegnitz and encouraged extensive catechetical work, both
of theoretical and practical nature.
He also continued to write and speak on
behalf of his explanation of the Lord's Supper. But what of the practice
of the Supper Christians were still fighting with one another and now
Schwenckfeld as well had entered the fray. On 21 April 1526 he,
Crautwald, and the preachers and pastors of Liegnitz issued a circular
letter reflecting the tension they then felt, and their solution for the
impossible situation in which they found themselves.
"The fact of the matter is this: Since
we and many others, including some of the populace, have felt and
recognized that little betterment is resulting as yet from the preaching
of the Gospel," something must be wrong. And what could be more
wrong than the improper celebration of the central Christian rite
"[Since this is the case,] we think that the Holy Sacrament or
mystery of the body and blood of Christ has not been observed according
to the Gospel and command of Christ." Those who eat and drink
unworthily, eat and drink judgement unto themselves, and therefore,
"we admonish men in this critical time to suspend for a time the
observance of the highly venerable Sacrament."
The suspension did nothing to ease tensions
within Christendom; for the next four years the bulk of Schwenckfeld's
writing was directed to this issue. His duke, Friedrich II supported
him, but as the heat of the reformation debate increased, Friedrich
increasingly found himself in a dilemma. Politically it was necessary
for the Silesians to draw closer to the Lutheran position, but with a
counselor of so high a profile as Schwenckfeld expressing an
anti-Lutheran position, this was difficult.
Finally in 1529, to avoid bringing his duke
further embarrassment, Schwenckfeld went into voluntary self-exile. The
most reasonable place for him to take refuge was the city of Strasbourg,
then undergoing a reform under the direction of Martin Butzer.
Time in Strasbourg
Strasbourg was remarkably tolerant for the
time, and as a result attracted persons of widely different religious
opinions. It was here, for example, that Schwenckfeld met the Anabaptist
Pilgram Marpeck with whom he would enter a lengthy debate in the 1540s.
It was also here that he seems to have come to know the thought of
Melchior Hofmann, whose position on the celestial body of Christ had
much in common with his own, although he always maintained that Hofmann
had borrowed ideas from him and not he from Hofmann.
Although he maintained a peaceful tone in the debate at the time,
Schwenckfeld held a firm debating position. He supported his ideas with
learning and care, and he did attract enough followers that his
opponents were forced to take him seriously ¡]his position as a member
of the nobility also seems to have required this¡^.
Nevertheless, his point of view was a
minority one during the period and was never supported by a powerful
political leader. What this meant was that he was ever forced to debate
without the possibility of winning. That pattern would remain throughout
his life.
We must take care not to romanticize the results. Like other supporters
of unpopular theological positions at the time, Schwenckfeld undoubtedly
suffered persecution, and it is clear that he never settled permanently
in one place for the rest of his life. However, he was able for
significant periods of time to find the physical stability necessary for
the study and production of his numerous theological treatises and
letters.
Confessor of the Glory of Christ
In 1541 he was living near the south German
town of Kempten and had for his use the library of the Benedictine
monastery there. It was here in the same year that he completed his
longest and most complex work, The Great Confession on The Glory of
Christ.
Schwenckfeld's thought on the nature and
person of Christ was fully developed by 1538 at the latest, but he had
been reflecting on the question from his earliest writings on the
sacrament in the 1520s. What he was ever concerned with was that the
body of Christ not be disparaged, or, to put it positively, that the
glorified body of Christ be properly confessed.
Because Schwenckfeld's christology was not
accepted by his contemporaries or later generations ¡]indeed, it was
considered heretical by man¡^, it continues to be noted as one of the
most "peculiar" aspects of his thought. But, peculiar or not,
it was the center-point of his work, and, in honor of this core
doctrine, his followers continued to call themselves "Confessors of
the Glory of Christ" until the eighteenth century.
The obscure theological details and their
source in the writings of the early church need not detain us at this
point. Simply put, Schwenckfeld distinguished two natures ¡]a divine
and a human¡^ in the person of Christ, as does Christian orthodoxy. But
he thought of the human nature in terms of a "celestial
flesh."
Jesus' flesh, he taught, was increasingly
divinised by his divine nature during his earthly sojourn, so that it
was transfigured and thereafter resurrected, taken up, and glorified at
the right hand of the Father. It is on this glorified flesh that the
believer feeds by faith; it is this flesh which by faith believers
spiritually partake of, and which, in turn, grows like a grain of
mustard in them as they grow daily in the image of Christ.
Whatever one might think of Schwenckfeld's
christology today ¡]whether it can be defended or not as orthodox as he
thought it could¡^ is a separate question. What we need to understand
is Schwenckfeld's intention in developing such a doctrine. He never
though simplistically or literally. The glorified body of Christ which
sits at the right hand of the Father is the body of which one partakes
in the Sacrament. It is not to be separated from the body of Christ in
which believers live and move and have their being and which they call
by the name "Church."
Thus one eats and drinks judgement upon
oneself, according to I Corinthians 11:29, when one eats and drinks of
the body and blood of Christ in the Lord's Supper "without
discerning the body"; "body" here referring to the bread
which is the spiritual body of Christ -- the community of believers
throughout the world, or the Church -- and referring to the glorified
body of Christ itself.
By approaching the sacrament without discernment -- without recognizing
that the Church is the universal ¡]catholic¡^ body of Christ, and not
merely the physical social-political entity made up of those who hold
particular doctrines in common against others -- one disparages the
Glorified Christ.
Looking Above for Peace
It was for this reason that Schwenckfeld so
strongly opposed the Anabaptist Pilgram Marpeck. Marpeck and the
Anabaptists ¡]later Mennonites¡^ attended to the historical Jesus of
Nazareth. Schwenckfeld was not opposed to this attention and certainly
not to the Anabaptists' attempt to imitate the life of the earthly
Jesus. What he asked of them in addition was that they "lift up
their hearts" to the image of the Glorified Christ so as not to
become only caught up in concerns for purity of their local and limited
congregational life.
And the theology of the Glorified Christ is also the context in which
Schwenckfeld's often-noted concern for religious toleration arises. His
is not a political position ¡]as is that of, for example, the American
Constitution¡^; it is a theological one.
One confesses the glory of Christ, not by supposing that all religious
opinions are of equal value, and effectively holding that they are
matters of taste and that in such matter one person's opinion is as good
as another's.
For Schwenckfeld religious toleration depended not on looking below
oneself but on contemplating above one's possibilities. Only when all
believers had raised their sights to the One above all others, would the
suspension of the sacrament come to an end in reality, a hope toward
which he reached throughout his life, and for which he still yearned, we
are given to understand, when he died in the home of friends in the city
of Ulm in 1561.
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